DISCUSS THE PART PLAYED BY INDUSTRY, NON-CONFORMITY AND EDUCATION, IN THE GROWTH OF WALES AS A NATION IN THE 19^th AND 20^th CENTURY.

This essay will look firstly, at the effect of Welsh industry on the growth of Wales, followed by the impact of non-conformity. The progress of Welsh education will be discussed, and finally, the total effect of all three upon Wales will form the conclusion.

To the question ‘when did it all begin’, Morgan (1984) says, “After the Acts of Union (1536-43), with a unified legal system and more settled conditions, there was a greater incentive for local industrial development, and for investment by English entrepreneurs, and metal manufactures”. (Plus an abundant supply of wood for charcoal smelting). The economic use of coal, so plentiful in south Wales to smelt iron (An invention of Abraham Darby-1709) plus a local supply of easily mined iron ore and limestone became the catalyst that started the ‘Welsh industrial revolution’.

Other natural minerals such as copper, lead, slate and even silver where also being exploited on a greater and greater scale. The finance for nearly all these enterprises came from England (or English estate holders within Wales) who quickly saw the potential in exploiting these mineral resources.

Markets for the finished product where assured by ‘wars’ i.e. The ‘Seven Year War’ (1756-1763), The ‘War of American Independence’ (1775-1783), and the ‘Napoleonic Wars’ (1793-1815). Furthermore with the advent of the ‘Railway Mania’ (1840s) provided a huge market for iron rails and rail-chairs etc. By the 1800, there where 25 furnaces producing 34,000 tons per year. By 1848, the furnaces totalled 165 and the output was 631,000 tons p.a.

Meanwhile the need for coal increased many fold. Specialist steam coals fuelled the worlds ships throughout the 18^th and 19^th. Century. In order to facilitate the export of coal and finished iron products, huge dock complexes where built at Cardiff, Swansea and Barry Island. Connection between the docks and the industrial centres where served by an extensive rail network, whereby nearly every ‘valley’ had a means of moving their products or mineral wealth to the coastal docks for export.

The availability of a compliant work force served all these industries any nation must have a stable or increasing basic population and Wales certainly met this specification. Jones (1984) points out “That the population of Wales in the early 1800s was only 587,000. A hundred years later (1901) it had risen to over 2 million. The 1991 census gives a population figure of 2.8 million”. He goes on to say “That changes on this scale, changed the very ‘fabric’ of the Wales”. Whilst the increases between 1800-1900 where due to the sudden explosive industrialisation of the southern counties, the workforce was grossly underpaid and overworked, but the lack of choice in the area allowed the work masters to use this work force to maximise their personal fortunes. However the combination whatever its merits, produced a huge industrial nation known world wide for its products.

However by the 1850s the demand for iron fell with the advent of the invention of steel. The availability of cheaper iron ores more suitable for steel making prompted the metal industries to move to the coast to set up their new processes, where to this day they still provide some 20% of U.K. steel. Coal fared no better, for with the availability of electricity, oil and petrol engines, the need for coal diminished greatly. (In its heyday, the miners produced 56.8 million tons (1914)). The 1984-5 strikes prompted the government to finally close down the remaining pits. Nowadays Wales is still an exporting nation, since the demise of the coal and iron industries; government agencies such as the ‘Welsh Development Board’ have worked to attract industry back into Wales. To some extent it has been successful in attracting foreign companies to set up assembly lines for car manufacturing. Electronic manufacturers have also invested heavily into the Welsh infrastructure. Jenkins (1992) points out, ”That Japanese companies alone have invested in 21 new production companies (with 5,000 new jobs)”. Many UK multinational have also moved into south Wales to set up manufacturing business’s The building of ’Motorways’, link roads, a rapid rail system to London, plus a proposed extension to Cardiff airport has consolidated the attractiveness of Wales as a desirable place to set up businesses. Wales now has a positive image of its own as a manufacturing centre, and relies less and less upon the so-called ‘gifts of government’. Following the beginnings of industrialisation came the need by the workers for spiritual comfort. To meet this need, a system of worship called non-conformism arose.

The second third of this essay will attempt to examine the breadth of non-conformism in Wales throughout the 18^th – 20^th century. Since the 17^th century England always saw Wales as a country 'lost in time', and as a religious country. Wales itself appeared to prefer this, and did nothing to refute it. The fact was, its religion was changing from the 'Anglican' model towards a change that better suited its way of life. The 'Industrial Revolution' was developing in south Wales, and there was massive immigration into the area. The Established church could not, or would not adapt to this change. The church dioceses where huge. Evans (1989) said that "The parish church of Llanbadarn Fawr, in the diocese of St. David's, covered over 52,000 acres, and could not give any parochial support to It's members". Thus there was a crying need for the spiritual needs of the populace to be met through other means.

This perceived need was indeed met by the efforts of the newer factions of Protestantism, 'Baptist'. 'Methodist', 'Unitarian', and 'Calvinism' etc. These newer factions unlike the Established church where able to move into the industrial areas to minister directly to its resident populous. Very often the first chapel consisted of small groups of people who met in pub 'long rooms' or someone's cottage. As they grew, the most literate became the 'minister', and through elections the chapel elders where chosen. Once founded, the member soon found cheap hilly ground, and upon it they built their first 'Bethel' or 'Zion' etc. (often with a facade at the front to advertise its prominence). From this simple beginning the 'Chapelocracy' arose to be the most collective and powerful religious movement Wales ever had. Because the chapel had no government support, church rate, or tithe, it relied 100% on it congregation for support, and as such the congregation itself became the electing body for both the Minister and the chapel Elders. This factor bound the chapel members and its Minister/Elders into a cohesive group that cared for each other's needs. Williams (1990) said that "Their where over 5,000 chapels built and used in 19^th century Wales". Thus whatever your spiritual preference, you where never very far from a suitable chapel.

Apart from the religious support to its populace, the chapel became the centre of many Welsh villagers''' lives, caring for their needs 'from the cradle to the grave'. It became almost 'de rigour' to be a member of a chapel, for without this, you where not considered a worthy person, thus most villagers would be a member of one of the many available chapels. The chapels quickly saw the need to be more than just a centre of worship. Jones (1984) says, "For a vast majority of people the distinction between the religious and the secular simply did not arise. The social aspects of religion were inescapably present in their everyday lives. As such, the chapels were vital ingredients in the communities, and non-conformity was a community-religion and community- culture". This 'Chapelocracy' realised that it needed to mould its congregation into 'ideal citizens' according to its doctrine. Thus the chapels moved from just prayer to almost a seven-day centre of activity and embraced virtually the whole spare time of the chapelgoers. The chapels provided 'Sunday Schools' which taught children (and sometimes adults) how to read and write, often using bible tracts to do this. Educated travelling ministers often offered day schooling. The larger chapels had choral societies and drama groups, marriage counselling, meeting rooms for political discussion, reading and lending libraries, Sunday saving clubs (Xmas clubs), and best of all where the Sunday school trips and Whitsun treats.

The inside structure of the chapel with its central pulpit and no altar meant that powerful orators (usually travelling ministers) such as Christmas Evans, Jubilee Young, and David Rowlands etc. could literally put the fear of God into the most hardened of its congregation. Herbert et al (1988) said that" One of the successes of dissent was powerful and efficient preaching. Its characteristics were said to be sound doctrine, perspicuous style, richness of thought, an animated delivery, an earnestness, a solemnity, and a directness of appeal" These ministers through their oratory taught fiercely that Sunday was a day of observance, and that no work should be done on that day. G. Williams (1998,pers, comm., 13 May) said "The chapel created solid, reliable, and honest individuals, the sort that employers wanted, and promulgated the Protestant work ethic". Furthermore the chapels "Kept the Welsh language alive (Language of Heaven)!” Many members of a chapel rose to become union officials shift managers, etc. and even entered parliament having learnt the art of speaking and organisation from their chapel.

Whilst the chapels fought for the civil and political rights of the Welsh worker, they did not condone strikes or violent confrontation. They believed in the master-servant relationship of good honest labour, for decent pay. Most chapels where politically aware, and strove to increase the lot of the working man, publication of periodicals such as 'Seren Gomer' (Star) and newspapers such as 'The Welshman', and 'Baner ac Amserau Cymru'. By 1836 chapels where licensed to perform marriages, using the Welsh language thus extending even more the commitment by the chapel to involve itself in its total care of its members.

As the years went by the non-conformist religions rose in prominence, and respectability in the eyes of Parliament. In 1868 the 'Church Rates' where abolished, (A great source of irritation to non-conformists). By 1872 non-conformists could enter Oxford. Further on, by 1880 the 'Burial Act' allowed non-conformists to be buried in holy-ground. The whole nation was seen as embracing non-conformity.

The 1851 'Religious Census' was the first real census of religion undertaken in the 19^th century. (Although it had many faults, and was badly organised, it was still a useful device). It confirmed the belief that 'Wales was more religious than England'. Wales had seating for 75% of the population, compared with London (29%), and Manchester (31. %). It did however produce a surprise on 'Census Sunday' when only 28% in Nth. Wales and 35% in Sth. Wales attended services that day. Many other figures showed that the non-conformists out numbered the Established church by about 10:1.

However the rise in non-conformity could not of course continue forever, and by the 1880s,the crest was reached, and a decline began. The perceived obsession of the ‘Chapelocracy’ against drunkenness, mild criminality, Sex out of wedlock etc., in what was becoming a modern society was no longer tolerated by people (Especially youngsters). And they looked towards the towns and cities etc for their entertainment. Religious beliefs where stretched with 'Darwinism' (1859 Origin of Species, and, 1871 Descent of Man). The horrors of World War 1 turned many away from religion; coupled with the decline of the Welsh language the chapels slowly retracted their activities. Chapels began closing, and within 100 years the rate of closing rose to one chapel per week. The final straw must have been the growth of 'Radio' and 'Television' in nearly every home.

Nowadays chapels have retrenched, offering a Christian teaching without the desire to change the lifestyle of their members. Many ministers now serve more than one chapel each Sunday. In Wales the ‘Chapelocracy’ is in many Welsh persons mind, still a powerful force .It should always be remembered that the ‘Chapelocracy’ was the right thing at the time. It served the purpose of the worker and also of course the master as well. I believe that the chapel helped to mould Wales into a nation within itself, and without it Wales would have been a poorer place.

Firstly work, then religious comfort laid open the need by many for higher recognisable education. Education in Wales suffered early abuse from England. The ‘Treason of the Blue Books’ (A report of the state of Welsh education in 1847) was commentated on by Jenkins (1992) who said “That the report was full of cheap insults, and gratuitous offensive generalisations”. This report hurt the Welsh a lot, and from then onwards the Welsh where spurred on to ensure that never again would such a thing be said about them in the future.

Following the 1867 Reform Act, Wales became a centre of radical Liberalism. The Anglican ‘Squirearchy’ was giving way to the more middle-class non-conformity movement within Wales. Higher education of this group suffered because of their religious beliefs. The refusal by the Anglican colleges (Oxford, Lampeter etc.) to admit non-conformist scholars created a vacuum especially in the higher education brackets. There was a perceived need for a Welsh college of the people (‘Prifysgol Y Werin’). This organisation decided to call for public subscriptions and over 100,000 ordinary people gave money (called ‘The Pennies of the Poor’). In spite of it being a non-conformist movement, the Anglican Church gave generously to the fund. Private subscriptions from industrialists where also received, (David Davies, (Llandinam) of Ocean Collieries, gave £5,000). The first university was the ‘College by the Sea’ (a disused hotel) in Aberystwyth in 1872. Although only meant to be a temporary college until other where built in Cardiff and Bangor, however, so well liked was it, that it became permanent, and was rebuilt at it present site.

Nowadays Wales provides a centre of educational excellence throughout. The ‘Welsh Intermediate Act (1899), was ahead of England in providing secondary schools education. The educational needs of the Welsh where further enhanced with the setting up of self contained universities. Wales now has universities at Lampeter (1822), Aberystwyth (1872), Cardiff (1883), Bangor (1884), and Swansea (1920). These universities in 1893 joined together to form the ‘University of Wales’. The ‘Central Wales Board (1896), and the ‘Welsh Dept. of the Board of Education (1907) oversaw the educational standards throughout Wales. Many of the old ‘Mine Eng. Schools’ have also been upgraded to ‘Polytechnics’. All this provided Wales with a top-flight educational system independent of England.

In conclusion, one must be aware that industry, religion and education follow each other with almost nonchalant ease. Each occurred in a logical sequence of time and space. The change from a pastoral nation to an industrial nation was an accident of nature, whereby if south Wales had had no natural deposits of iron and coal it would never have developed the way it did. It surely would have only developed into a tourist trap. Non-conformity was also a product of its age. The immediate spiritual needs of the workers could not be fed by the then present Anglican movement; therefore non-conformity with its ‘Pastors’ was a rapid solution to the problem. Again in higher Welsh education, non-conformity (with Anglican sympathisers) took its educational needs to heart and solved them without help from government etc. All this showed how a nation of workers can change the social infrastructure of its own nation.

REFERENCES.

Evans,G. (1989) History of Wales 1815-1906. (U.O.Wales ).P82.

Herbert et al.(1988) The remaking of Wales in 18^th Century (U.O.Wales Press ).P 52.

Davies, J (1993) A History of Wales. (Penguin Books, London) P.360.

Jenkins, P. (1992) History of Modern Wales, 1536-1990.(Longman, London.) P378

Jones, G.E. (1984) Modern Wales 1485-1979. (Cambridge Press, London) P.254.

Morgan, et al (1984) Shaping of a Nation. (David & Charles, London.) P 110.

Simpkin, J. (1983) Wales in Industrial Britain. (Spartacus Press, Brighton.). P.48.

Williams,G. (1985) When was Wales. (Black Raven Press, London.) P 305.

Williams,D. (1950) History of Modern Wales. (longmans, London.) P 378.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Davies,J A History of Wales. (Penguin Books, London 1993.)

Evans,G. History of Wales 1815-1906. (U.O.Wales 1989).

Herbert et al. The remaking of Wales in 18^th Century (U.O.Wales Press 1988).

Jenkins,P. History of Modern Wales,1536-1990. (Longman,London. 1992)

Jones,G.E. Modern Wales 1485-1979. (Cambridge Press, London. 1984.)

Morgan, et al Shaping of a Nation. (David & Charles, London. 1984.)

Simpkin,J. Wales in Industrial Britain. (Spartacus Press, Brighton. 1993).

Williams,D. History of Modern Wales. (Murray, London.1950).

Williams,G When was Wales. (Black Raven Press, London. 1985.)