TELEWORKING AND ITS EFFECT ON HOME LIFE AND GENDER.
This essay will discuss the effect of 'Teleworking' in the
UK, and to some extent the rest of the northern EEC, with special reference to
the home life and gender of its workers. The definition of 'Teleworking' is
difficult to define due to its rather broad church. One of the better
definitions is Bergen (1997) who says 'Teleworking is working at a distance
from your customers, employers or clients using phones, computers and other
tele-technologies to keep in contact with them. Teleworking can make work
independent of geographical location and distance'.
The
history of teleworking is rather short. The need for document processing is
central to any business, and, as such relied on the mechanical insertion and
retrieval of documents from a centralised card index or filing cabinet.
Therefore workers by necessity were grouped together in city centre office
blocks. The introduction of computer controlled magnetic storage and retrieval
devices firstly allowed workers to access data from their desks within the
building, and with improvements in data transfer by wire/satellite with error
correction allowed these work stations to be sited further and further away
from the document processing centre. The situation nowadays is that data can be
accessed from almost any location on the planet. Bibby (1995) saw this
progress, as a 'Reverse Industrial Revolution', when he said this about
teleworking: -
'I think its useful to remember what happened
during the first Industrial Revolution, because some people are suggesting that
what we are beginning to see is an industrial revolution in reverse. Last time,
19th century technology led to a centralisation of work, to the
growth of large industrial centres and cities. This time we could witness the
opposite: the move away from large work-places, the gradual emptying of the
office blocks and possibly even a shift back to country living from city life.'
As all workers need to have a base, and teleworkers as
such require access to the fixed telephone network, then we need to look at
their place of work. European Telework OnLine (2000) identified the following:
-
Home-based Telework,Telecommuting.
Employed teleworkers/telecommuters: The
individuals contract of employment includes the home as well as (or instead of)
the employers premises.
Self employed or freelance
teleworkers/telecommuters: The individual chooses or prefers to work at home.
Generally, self-employed people will "follow the market" - if the
employer wants them on "site" they'll work on site.
Informal teleworkers/telecommuters: A rather
loose arrangement, often 'ad hoc' for
specialised contracts.
Entrepreneurial teleworkers: Usually people
starting up in business for the first time, who use their home as a free office
until established.
Telecentres.
A company might well find that it could locate
its finance department away from the city centre into cheaper premises, or site
its ordering and warehousing division alongside a Motorway to reduce intercity
driving/costs. Therefore all staff concerned are concentrated together away
from their HQ, for the common good of the company, rather than the individual.
Telecottages.
A special class of telecentre, named because
of its origins in rural villages. The original focus of telecottages was to
bring technology and relevant skills to people in remote villages who lack
opportunities to gain these skills by working for 'high-tech' employers, who
have generally clustered in and around larger urban centres. The centre is
often subsidised by government grants with supported (paid) training. Its
advantage to the rural teleworker is that it provides some form of 'social
interaction' and reduces perceived isolation.
.
Televillages.
This is
usually new (and expensive) housing developments, that have inbuilt teleworking
capabilities, with high quality ISDN lines, and even satellite 'up-linkage'
facilities. Crickhowell in Wales is an example. Zorichak (Pers.Conn) says that
these Crickhowell houses have become desirable because of their location rather
than their ability to be part of a networked community.
Nomadic Teleworkers.
Salespeople
and engineers who access their company either whilst on the road using the new
WAP systems, or executives from there hotel bedrooms are a new breed of
teleworker. Many newer hotels are now "networker-friendly" and cater
for them with private computer workstations.
Teleworkers carry out many types of work, dependent upon
their skills and the market needs. Perhaps the top of the tree is the freelance
(or loosely connected) programmer, who from home or remote office is able to
access distant computers to repair software glitches etc. (Usually through a
purpose built 'back door' built into the programme). Many suppliers of rare art, wines and specialised
books, have found that they could move out of expensive city properties and
relocate to either their home or a small group telecentre and still offer their
'value-added' service. Various skills
spiral downwards until we reach the simple 'data collectors' (Who collate data
lists from i.e. 'Electoral Rolls' for mailing list companies, or from various
county court hearings for the benefit of credit companies). Utility companies
now use meter readers who collect readings on a hand-held computer daily, and
download the readings each evening over the phone lines to a remote
'accounting' computer, (the following morning they 'up-load' their days calls.)
The range of possibilities grows each year, and it is from
such advances in tele-technology that government agencies make their prediction
that teleworking is one of the fastest growing employment opportunities of the
21st century. However there
is a fly in the ointment. Large multinationals having worked out the benefits
of teleworking, have found that if they relocate their teleworking overseas,
the wages of the foreign teleworker is much less than their UK counterpart. By
clever use of differing time zones overseas, foreign teleworkers can use the
companies computers whilst the UK sleeps. Sulzer (1998) points out that 'Some
utility companies are even considering moving their entire 'accounting' and
advice centres overseas to reduce costs'. Should this happen then only
teleworkers who can bring some form of 'added-value' to their work will
survive. The former typist, who in the last re-shuffle retrained and moved onto
computers to process documents, will once again find herself redundant.
The percentage of people teleworking in the UK appears to
remain quite low. BBC-OnLine (July 1999) quotes a report from the 'Institute of
Employment Studies 1999, which says that 'There are now more than 1 million
people working from home using the new technology, and that about 200,000
people a year will take advantage of this technology to live and work in the
same place'. This is less than 10% of
the total working population. The report goes on to say that 'British Telecom'
is asking over 15,000 of its staff to
consider working as full time teleworkers from home. It will then reduce its
10,000 office based workstations to
3,000. The BBC itself is outsourcing its staff in a similar manner. It is interesting to note that Geoff Adams
(Teleworking Manager) of the BBC says 'It is very popular with the staff. They
are happier, use their time more productively and are less stressed'. British
Telecom however is more down to earth and sees teleworking differently. Roy
Jenkins, head of 'BT Property' says 'BT will make major savings in its estate
running costs and capital savings by reducing investment in new offices and
expensive refurbishment's'. (? Two forms of office speak, with the same goal.)
As to which sex is predominant in the UK teleworking
field, it appears at the moment that there are more males than females engaged
in teleworking. Osborne (1999) in the Swansea University Survey (PATRA) found
that: -
·
56% were males (Average
age 38yrs)
·
44% were females
( " " 35yrs)
·
60% were single
·
19% were married
·
17% were separated
·
4% misc.
A series of four 6 monthly American
surveys by 'Research International' (1997) however showed that female
teleworkers are on the increase, (by almost 100% in 2 yr.)
·
(1st half, year one.) = 14.7% female teleworkers.
·
(2nd half, year one.) = 18.3% " "
·
(1st half, year two.) = 25.7% " "
·
(2nd half, year two.) = 27.9% " "
If we extrapolate this to the year 2000 then female
teleworkers would greatly exceed those of males. If we follow American trends
(as we usually do), then we could see female teleworkers overtaking male
teleworkers in the near future. From all this we can really discount the
'singles' (no partner, no babies), who are probably a mobile workforce, taking
on contract work as and when needed (i.e. Programmers etc.) They have a greater
choice of where to work and may well voluntarily choose teleworking to meet their
social and monetary needs. (Disabled single/married are discussed later.) What
all the above denotes, is that the female married/partnership teleworker is,
(or will be), a force to be reckoned with as their number increases.
Most average houses, never
seem to have a 'spare-place' to work in. If there are children then the house
is usually over occupied as it is. A survey by Sulzer (1999) showed that
teleworking within the average home occurs as 30% living room, 27% bedroom, 22%
dining room, 16% in odd spaces and 5% in the kitchen. One participant quote
was: - "When my employer asked whether we wanted to telework, he didn't
ask whether I actually had room to work in. When the kids come in, there's a
real conflict between my need to work and their natural wish to play in the
room". This situation is probably more common among single mothers, who
have to be aware that shooing away children who may already have some sense of
loss can create difficulties in relationships yet to be formed. However home
teleworking may be the only way that a couple can start a family, more so, if
the husbands income is low or absent (unemployed). This may well be more
important in rural areas where well-paid jobs do not exist.
Social isolation away from their peer group (neighbours
and relatives etc.) may also occur if teleworking occupies all day and the
children occupy all evening. Adams (1999) says that 'If we spend more time
interacting with people at a distance we must spend less time with those closer
to home, and if we have more contact with more people, we must devote less time
and attention to each of them'. Again it’s the female who would suffer more,
having traditionally, more of a 'self asserted' moral responsibility for
childcare, (although in a marriage/partnership this should not occur). Darnige
et al (1998) says 'Care of dependent older people is becoming almost as big an
issue as child care, with older people living longer, having fewer children and
less extended family to share that care'. As we are all living longer, This
could affect both the settled single (mainly
daughters) and the married
teleworker.
If the home teleworker is paid by accountable results
(piecework), then, she may well attempt to work excessive hours in order to
make wages up to an acceptable level, to the extent of neglecting childcare and
her own healthcare. BT teleworkers have
an online metering system, which
monitors not only the 'slackers', but it will also 'flag' up higher than
expected online users. If all telework employers had this system then
'overwork' could be a signal that not all is well with the teleworker, and a
sympathetic employer may well seek to remedy any ills.
Teleworkers on part time contracts or work perceived by a
company as of low esteem may be forced to provide their own equipment. The telworker may even have to enter into a
long term leasing or credit arrangement for the purchase of this equipment.
This can seriously eat into earnings, and after all this the need to upgrade
every few years makes this a continual deficit against earnings. The provision
of heating and lighting in a room not routinely used during the day (ie
bedroom), can also raise working expenses. Sulzer (1999) says 'Another usually
undocumented expense is the legal need to inform firstly their mortgage lender
that they are working from home as it invalidates the original nature of a
standard mortgage contract'. Secondly,
the legal need to inform the county council of change of use will often result
in an increase in their 'Community Charge'. Finally the need to meet the
'Health & Safety Act (1974)' may require structural alteration, fire
regulation and first aid provision. The cost of working from home could become
prohibitive. It is more than likely that the lone home teleworker will tell no
one, and in doing so, in the event of a work related injury such as 'Repetitive
Strain Injury', Eye damage (screen glare etc.) or even equipment fault
(electrocution etc.) invalidate any
life or home accident policy. The 'Citizens Advice Bureau' and various
government agencies such the DHHS now have free advice centres whereby the
advantages or the disadvantages of any schemes financial and legal
problems can be assessed.
Continual working at the same intellectual level whilst
perceived colleagues rise within the parent company may add to the
teleworkers social isolation. The
feeling of being passed over for promotion can create a feeling that they are
being undervalued. If this continues, then it may give rise to psychological
problems, which must certainly affect the family unit. (A 'breakdown', is said
by the NSPCC to account for 15% of marital breakdowns). In the Osborne (1999)
P.A.T.R.A. survey one participant said "There is a lack of understanding
from my office based colleagues so they tend to treat my calls to them in a
rushed 'low priority' way which can be depressing. I know they're busy, but I
am too!' Perhaps the biggest financial loss for a woman is the lack of paid
company health benefits for maternity leave, hospital or dental visits etc. which
her on-site colleagues may well qualify for. Even more simple things like
office collections and baby presents may well not be forthcoming to the home
teleworker, reinforcing the feeling that no one cares. Paid days off for the
routine child illnesses that occur, may also not be recognised if the
teleworker is seen simply as a unit of production and not as part of the
overall team. Whilst many government agencies now have information on
'Employment Rights', there is probably nothing on loss of self esteem,
dejection and isolation.
Darnige et al (1998) looked at disabled teleworkers and
says that 'Telework for disabled people has been relatively slow to develop in
Europe. It is not only for money that
disabled teleworkers exist. They see it as a way to participate in society, to
achieve goals and personal achievement. For many disabled people telework can
offer a real opportunity to obtain or retain employment and to secure social
and professional integration. However not every disabled person is suited to
the style of working and it is important to ensure that those wishing to
telework are suitably trained'
In conclusion, there are many positive sides to
teleworking. The ability to live in a rural environment, to have a family, to
lessen commuting pollution, to take an active part in rural affairs, and to
have the feeling of 'self-employment' can be perceived as a plus against any of
the negatives thrown up by this essay. The value of a caring 'live in partner'
may well make this sort of lifestyle desirable against that of the daily
commuting office based worker. There is
advice available to anyone who cares to look before they leap. The future could
well embrace the 'Teleworkers Charter' proposed by Bibby (1995)
·
Teleworking should be
voluntary.
·
Full employee status.
·
Same rates of pay (and
overtime) as on-site staff.
·
Any additional
expenses should be paid.
·
Employer assistance in
reducing social isolation.
·
Same training
opportunities as on-site staff.
·
Career paths should be
kept open.
·
Opportunity to return
to on-site work.
·
Employer to notify
teleworkers of vacancies.
·
Employer to supply
necessary equipment.
·
Employer to be
responsible for employees health & safety.
·
Right of trade union
access for membership.
He goes on to say that 'In fairness, it has to be said
that many UK companies who have been developing teleworking projects, have
taken on board many of these points, and have done their best to maintain good
personnel practice.
INTERNET REFERENCES.
Most of the books I consulted on 'Teleworking', had no up
to date statistics, or research based opinions. Most only gave standard
generalised views. Therefore all references have been obtained from accredited
agencies via the Internet.
Nearly
all references, refer to UK or Northern European Teleworking practices.
Adams,J. (Prof. UCL,
London) (1999) Teleworking Will Destroy Society. Short extract taken from a
'Guardian' article, and published by 'The Register' site.
www.theregister.co.uk/991203-000015.html
Ashdown,P (MP) How
Teleworking Revolutionised my Working Life.
www.flexibility.co.uk/ashdown.htm
BBC News online:
Business: The Economy Database.
(November 3rd
1998) Sending Workers Home for Greater Productivity.
(May 11th
1999) BT Tells Workers to Stay at Home.
(July 25th 1999) Teleworking Takes Off.
(November 1999) Should
we all work from Home.
www.news.bbc.co.uk/low/english/the_economy/newsid_403000/.stm
Bergen,I. (1997) Survey
of Teleworking in Ireland.
www.forbairt.ie/about/publications/summary.html
Bibby,A. (1995) Working
on the Infobahn: Teleworking and the Labour Movement in Manchester.
www.eclipse.co.uk/pens/bibby/infobahn.html
Darnige et
al.(1998) Using Telework for the
Benefit of Older People and Disabled People. ('Idate' European Community
Project).
www.idate.fr/maj/proj/include/impact_a.html
Darnege et al. (1998) The
Impact of Distance Education and Telework on Elderly and Disabled People.
('Idate' European Community Project)
European Community
Forum.
www.telework.forum.org/ Telework and
Teleworking
European Telework
Online (January 2000) Telework and Telecommuting.
Guthrie,R (1997) Teleworking
Ethics.
www.hsb.baylor.edu/ramsower/ais.ac.97/papers/guthrie.htm
Hodson,N. (2000) The
Economics of Teleworking. (American, working in Oxford, UK)
www.telworker.com/papers/economic.html
HOP Associates UK
(2000) Does Teleworking have the power to transform the way we live and work ?
(From 'Flexibility Report)
www.flexibility.co.uk/telpubpol.htm
HOP Associates UK
(2000) Understanding Teleworking.
www.flexibility.co.uk/telewhat.htm
'Inclusion' The
Inclusion of Disabled and Elderly People in Telematics.
www.stakes.fi/include/index.html
Institute for
Employment Studies. Teleworking:Guidelines for Good Practice.
www.employment-studies.co.uk/summary/329sum.html
Research International
(Survey Questionnaire) Internet Use for Teleworking (Undated)
www.risq.net/survey/4/general/gen_sexe.html
Pitman,S. (1998) Telecommuting:
The Convergence of Work, Home and Family Spheres.
Osborne,D. (1999) P.A.T.R.A.-Opportunities
for Rural Areas. (Dept. of Psychology, Swansea University)
www.swan.ac.uk/psychology/patra/patra.htm
Sulzer (1998) Home or
Away: Teleworking Today. (Survey). Sulzer Management Consultantcy, London.
www.si-cbx.com/teleworking/twbody.html
Teleworking - Costs
and Benefits for Employers.
www.nbs.ntu.ac.uk/staff/pybusej/6c.htm
Word count (minus
references) = 2711.
Addendum:- "What of our Childrens Children".
Hodson (2000) saw the structure of
companies changing from a 'pyramidal' structure, through to a 'flat wheel'
structure, with all its workers on the rim as teleworkers, and only the
computer controlled corporate head at its centre. He goes on to say that
'As the younger generation, the 'Nintendo' generation, who
are completely familiar and comfortable with computers and online
communications, take their places in organisations, start their own businesses
and start making investment decisions, they will not invest in marble clad
headquarters buildings, they will not buy fleets of expesive cars to leave in
the company's garage, they will invest far more in computers and telecommunications,
they will invest far more in training for dispersed working, they will not care
what their employees wear or at what time of day or night they do their work -
as long as they deliver. They will employ people living, perhaps at lower cost,
in remote places, miles from the 'office' - as long as they are good at the job
and deliver'.