Miller-Playwright

Therefore, if we are more than our constituent parts, it reflects admirably our unknown behavioural patterns.

The alteration of behaviour, (behavioural therapy) is often thought of as a modern concept. Nowadays it is used in the treatment of abnormal or maladjusted behaviour within our society. However the roots of behaviourism go back as far as the late 18th century. Darwin (1873).Romanes (1883). and Morgan (1909).(Cited in Munn 1957) proposed that we should look at the behaviour of the higher animals (apes etc.,) and in doing so, we will note a similarity between the behaviour of man and animals in the same circumstances.

Thorndike (1911)(Cited in Broadbent 1961) was probably one of the first behavioural psychologists to actually demonstrate a predicted and measurable behaviour pattern in response to a conditional stimuli. (his methods are discussed later). Later Watson (1924)(Cited in Gross 1984) proposed the statements of behaviour, and rejected the unreliable ‘introspection’ which clouded the issue in behavioural observation. Both the above (and Skinner (1947).much later on,) proposed the use of the ‘black box’ method whereby only the input stimuli to the organism, producing a measurable output is used, (leaving out the organisms introspective interpretation of the experiment).

The two most accepted theories on behavioural conditioning are firstly ‘Classical Conditioning’ and secondly ‘Operant Conditioning’. Whilst both have a lot of similarities they do have two distinct outcomes. This fact makes them both useful in treatments of behavioural abnormalities as we shall see later.

Pavlov (1927) (Cited in Gross 1984) in his ‘Classical Conditioning’ experiment, used the innate response of a dogs salivation to food as the basis of his behavioural experiment.

When the dog was fed, it salivated, which was normal. Next, when the dog was fed, a bell was rung, the dog continued to salivate, again which is as expected. This was repeated a number of times until a state was reached that when the bell was rung (and no food offered), the dog salivated.

This showed a conditioned response learnt by the dog that a bell meant food, and thus it salivated. The formula for this is in fig.1.

The change-over from animals to humans in order to replicate Pavlovs experiments was first carried out by Krasnogorski (1929).and later by Mateer(1929) (Cited in Munn 1957).

Krasnogorski measured the swallowing/saliva response in babies when first fed only food. Next food plus buzzer, then buzzer only, (he found that that the babies still salivated). This showed that Pavlovs conditioned response theory was transferable from animals to humans. Mateer(1929) using infants, repeated the experiment with similar results.

Fig.1. PAVLOVS CONDITIONING THEORY.

During Conditioning:-

Conditioned Stimulus CS + Unconditional Stimulus UCS = Unconditional Response UCR

Bell + Food = Salivation

After Conditioning:-

Conditioned stimulus CS --> --> --> --> --> --> --> --> --> Conditioned Response CR

Bell Salivation

Whilst all the above holds good during the experiment, changes can and do occur after the initial experiment. The bell/buzzer/food etc. has to be repeated after a short period of time, this is called ‘Re-enforcement’. Without re-enforcement the initial conditioning diminishes which is known as ‘Extinction’‘. Classical Condition’ held sway for many years, but has partially given way to ‘Operant Conditioning’

Whilst Skinner (1948) (Cited in Greene et al 1991) first proposed the term ‘Operant Conditioning’. It was Thorndike (1911) (Cited in Greene 1991) who first proposed the actual basic theory. Thorndike suggests that Pavlovs theory does not take into account the acquisition of new response which are not innate in the organism. The first attempt to demonstrate the learning of new responses was Thorndikes ‘ trial and error’ study of learning in cats.

A hungry cat is placed into a puzzle box, outside is a dish of food. To get out and eat the food, the cat has to work a latch which allows the cat to escape, and eat the food. When put into the box at first, it struggles and in doing so accidentally pulls the release catch, which allows it to escape, to the food. This process is repeatedly carried out, and over a period of time ,the cat takes less and less time to escape.

Thorndikes theory, was his demonstration of the motivational factors in learning. Would the cat have tried to escape if it had not been hungry ?. This led to

Thorndikes ‘Law of Effect’, which states “That learning only occurs if a response has some effect on the organism”. “That if the response has a pleasant consequences for the organism, then learning occurs through the strengthening of the connection between the stimulus and the response. If not then the behaviour is weakened”.

Skinner(1948) (Cited in Gross 1994). took Thorndikes work a stage further in that he proposed two different kinds of learning. The first he called ‘Respondent Behaviour’ which is an organisms innate response to new stimuli. The second is ‘Operant Conditioning’, natural in the sense that it is not directly elicited by a particular stimulus. It is this response that interested Skinner most. In his experiments, Skinner only gave rewards when the organism emitted the desired response.(fig.2). In his pigeon experiment, he showed that not only did the pigeon learn the desired response in exchange for a reward, but he was able to modify that response which he calls ‘shaping’.

A hungry pigeon is put into the ‘Skinner’ box with a lighted button on the wall. The pigeon strut about pecking randomly. After a while the pigeon accidentally pecks the lighted button and is rewarded with food. This action is repeated by the pigeon, and as time goes by the pigeon will cease its random pecking and learn to peck the lighted button continually. The ‘shaping’ is brought about by introducing other simple toys/games into the box and when the pigeon shows any accidental inclination towards the expected movement, it is rewarded. Thus the bird ‘learns’ to respond in a certain way in exchange for food.

Fig.2. Skinners Operant Conditioning.

During Conditioning.

Neutral Stimuli NS == Emitted Response == Reinforcement.

Button Peck Food

After Conditioning.

Discriminative Stimulus == Operant Response == Reinforcement.

Button Peck Food.

When you compare Classical conditioning with Operant conditioning, there are both similarities and dissimilarities. In the Classical, only an innate involuntary reflex can be changed into a conditional response, (i.e. salivation, whatever the CR is). In Operant conditioning, many types of behaviour can be conditioned by re-enforcement (reward or punishment etc.,) to a desired response, although the procedure is a much slower one than Classical conditioning. Furthermore, whereby food is the initiator in Classical, in Operant a condition is initiated by the organism which is rewarded by food, which can be used to further modify conditioning, (shaping).

Often both Classical and Operant may be occurring in the same situation (as when a pigeon is Classically conditioned to transfer from a lighted button to a bell). Both rely on linking, or making association between stimuli and response. Finally both show generalisation, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

REFERENCES.

Darwin,C.(1873).(Cited in Munn,N.(1957). Evolution & Growth of Human Behaviour. Harrup Press) P 2.

Krasnogorski,N.(1909).(Cited in Munn,N.(1957) Evolution & Growth of Human Behaviour. Harrup Press) P201-203.

Morgan,C.(1909). Introduction to Comparative Psychology 2nd Ed. P2.

Mateer,F (1918) Child Behaviour, Badger Press. P6-26.

Pavlov,I.(1927). Conditioned Reflexes. Oxford Press. (Cited in Gross 1992) Psychology 2nd Ed. Hodder & Stoughton. P 167-9.

Skinner,B.(1947). Experimental Psychology (Cited in Greene et al 1991) Basic Cognitive Processes. O.U. Press P50-53.

Thorndike,E (1911). Animal Intelligence. Psych Rev. (Cited in Broadbent 1961) Behaviourism. Eyre & Spottiswood. P56.

Watson,J.(1924). Behaviourism, Chicago Press.(Cited in Gross 1992) Psychology 2nd Ed. Hodder & Stoughton. P172.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Cardwell,M. A-Level Psychology. Longman Group. 1994.

Cohen,D. Psychologists. Routledge Press. 1977.

Boring,J. Foundations of Psychology. John Wiley. 1948.

Broadbent,D. Behaviourism. Eyre & Spottiswood. 1961.

Dilman,I. Mind, Brain & Behaviour. Routledge Press. 1988.

Dretske,F. Explaining Behaviour. M.I.T. Press. 1992.

Foley,R. Origins of Human Behaviour. Unwin & Hyman Press. 1991.

Greene et al. Basic Cognitive Processes. O.Univ. Press. 1992.

Gross,R. Psychology. 2nd Ed. Hodder & Stoughton. 1992.

Mackenzie,B. Behaviourism & Scientific Methods. Routledge Press.1997

Munn,N. Evolution & Growth of Human Behaviour. Geo.Harrup. 1957.