THE CONTRIBUTION OF
EVANGELICALISM, TO THE VICTORIAN IDEAL OF GODLINESS.
This essay will
discuss how Evangelicalism affected the Victorian ideal of Godliness.
Evangelicalism is defined in the Oxford Concise (1995) as "A branch of Protestant Christianity
emphasising the authority of Scripture, personal conversion and the doctrine of
salvation by personal atonement".
Many historians
see Evangelicalism as a natural progression of Calvinism. Walker (1985) however
says "The turning point was ‘Arminianism’,
(from Dutch theologian Arminius) whereby the English Arminians reacted against
the Calvinistic tendencies of the Elizabethan Church of England. It asserted
the belief in free grace rather than pre-destination and sacrament rather than
just preaching as central to worship". This essay will not discuss
the essential time-line of Evangelicalism, as we are mainly interested in its
effect rather than its history. Suffice to say that the concept of
Evangelicalism lies in the religious revival, which occurred in Britain around
1750. Many Anglican churchmen went though parallel, but spontaneous
‘conversion’ experiences which involved an intense feeling of their sins being
forgiven, and a personal assurance of salvation through active preaching to all
the masses. Bradley (1976) coined the word ‘Vital Religion’ to explain this conversion. The most famous of
these was of course ‘John Wesley’ (who was converted in 1738) who founded the
‘Methodist’ movement, and prompted many offshoot non-conformist sects. The
emotion of Evangelicalism was fortified by the doctrine of salvation and faith
in the atoning death of Christ (Crucicentrism). It also saw itself as being
imbued with the spirit of the gospels as opposed to only the Old Testament.
Godliness was
the acceptance that a ‘re-generate’ man could have no pleasure in anything but
a striving to please the Lord. Bebbington (1998) expands this when he said that
"Godliness came to mean that
salvation could only be achieved through firstly a life dedicated to God and
secondly the application of ‘moral earnestness’ in all aspects of their daily
lives" Bebbington links them together as ‘Conversionism, Biblicalism, Criucicentrism and Activision’.
Gilbert (1976) states the Victorian Evangelical ‘High Noon’ as being
roughly between 1800 and 1860, with a rapid decline after these dates. He goes
on to say "This was the period in
which the vast majority of Victorians grew up and when the influence of
Evangelicalism was at its height". This era was also the most exciting,
the Victorians saw their country as virtually ‘masters of the world’ following
its foreign conquests, its explosion of British inventiveness and industrial
expansion. The movement of huge numbers of people from the countryside into the
expanding industrial conurbation’s provided a cheap workforce that fuelled the
‘Industrial Revolution’. Huxley (1966) said "The bringing together of people into cities and their resultant poverty
and susceptibility to the low life provided the fuel for evangelical endeavour".
One of the beliefs taught to every Sunday school child was that: - Methodism saved England from revolution. The
Clapham Sect (with Wilberforce) secured the end of the slavery trade.
Evangelical sobriety cleaned up a dissolute nation. Evangelical work ethics
contributed the work disciple implicit in its people. Moral earnestness lay at
the heart of England’s greatness and that, Evangelicalism had secured the
central place of religion in British society.
The abolition
of slavery (both home and colonies) in 1833 however, is seen by modern
historians as, less due to Evangelicalism than economic free market capitalism
and the political framework of advancing Liberalism. However we must be aware
that the Evangelically driven overseas missions, had narrowed both the
geological and psychological gaps between the social realities in Britain and
the colonies. Wolffe (1995) saw this fact as "An essential precondition of a genuinely popular mobilisation against
slavery". Support for the overseas mission is well epitomised by
the following 19th century verse.
‘Would you like to be told the best
use for a penny?
I can tell you a use that is better
than any –
Not on toys, not on fruit, nor on
sweetmeats to spend it,
But over the seas to the heathen you
should send it’
G.W.E.Russell.
(The Household of Faith)
Godliness was
seen by the French historian ‘Elie Halevy’ as a calming influence in Britain
whilst the rest of Europe was in chaos and anarchy. He points out that "The power of voluntary effort and religious
enthusiasms helped to secure English freedoms and forge a rough harmony of
values between the pragmatic and moralistic middle classes and the skilled and
respectable sections of the English working classes". This
statement if true would explain the political stability of early industrial
Britain, and that English society was less violent and inflexible than the
French.
Most history books emphasise the Godly based philanthropic
efforts of the 19th century. The act of ‘giving’ was seen to
epitomise the work of the Lord, and ensure one’s salvation in the next life.
Philanthropy was considered as an idealistic way of promoting your own
Evangelical Godliness in the eyes of the Lord and of course your peers. If you
where upper class then your Christian attitude to your lesser servants/tenants
had to be of a practical nature even if you really had no fortune. Fletcher
(1998) writing on the life of Lord Lyttleton (1796-1865) of Hagley Hall, says
"That even though the family had
little disposable income, they felt as High Church Evangelicals the Christian
need to give what they could to their tenants and the ‘sickly persons’ resident
on their estate". Many philanthropists were probably guided by the
testament phase ‘Inasmuch as ye have
done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me’
Philanthropy also afforded the giver a chance to ‘convert’ the
recipients, which of course was one of the prime tenets of Evangelicalism.
However if the giving of alms (or even Bibles) was seen by many to be a good
thing, they saw little reason to alter the reasons for people needing relief in
the first place. Some philanthropists where careful to separate themselves from
the more needy. The Reverend H. Thornton in his book ‘Family Prayers’ (1834)
felt the need to keep all Gods creatures at arm length when he said "Give to the poor contentment with their lot,
and to the rich a spirit of compassion and benevolence". Who can
ever forget the 4th verse of ‘All Things Bright and Beautiful’ which
says ‘The rich man in his Mansion, the
poor man at his gate…" Therefore one can say that Evangelical
philanthropy probably provided the first form of ‘social care’. Bradley (1976)
says "There where over 500
benevolent societies by 1853, so many in fact that the government had to set up
a ‘Charity Commission’ (which exists even to-day) to oversee their work. Over
75% of all voluntary charitable organisations in 1850 were Evangelical in
character and control".
The Non-Conformist Evangelical Sects however, often having no
disposable income in toto, met their Evangelical Godliness needs in a more
practical way. The repeal of the ‘Test & Corporation Act’ in 1828
legitimised the roles of the ‘Free Church’ ministry. Members of the
congregation themselves became the practical workers manning night shelters,
women’s refuges, soup kitchens and ‘Ragged Schools’ etc. Their churches taught
basic reading and writing to both children and adults, This was often the only
way the lower classes learned to read. Biblical tracts and pictures where mainly
used. (The ‘Education Act’ did not come in until 1870). They took Sunday-School
children away on trips (‘The Whitsun treat’), provided rooms for savings clubs,
men’s clubs and other meetings. The bigger churches provided ‘sick care’ and,
in some cases homes for the elderly . This to, was a form of ‘social care’
before its time. Jones (1984) says, "Non-conformity was a community religion based on a community culture
that existed at that time. Each profession or type of job necessitated the
group living in close proximity to each other. (i.e. Miners, metal workers
etc.) These close communities both worked and prayed together."
From this closeness, came the Evangelical concept of ‘cradle to the grave’ care
of the body and the soul.
Perhaps the most external sign of Evangelical Godliness was the
‘Fourth Commandment’. ‘Six days shalt
thou labour…’ ‘Sabbatarianism’ was seen as the essence of Godliness in
the 19th century. Its practice exemplified as a day of prayer,
church attendance, quiet reflection upon the bible and the reading of religious
tracts. In the houses of the rich this practice was enforced even down to the
servants. Any form of entertainment was frowned on, and even children where
forced to comply with the ethos. The Evangelical High Churches sought state
control to close alehouses, shops and any form of sporting events on Sundays.
Some even sought to ban train travel on Sundays. Many societies where formed to
monitor the activities of others. (Lords Day Observance Society). The middle to
lower classes where generally kept in check on Sunday observance by the
‘Hell-fire and Brimstone’ effect of their preachers. Herbert (1988) says,
"One of the successes of Dissent
was powerful and efficient preaching. Its characteristics were said to be sound
doctrine, perspicuous style, richness of thought, an animated delivery,
earnestness and a directness of appeal". These Ministers through
their oratory taught fiercely, that Sunday was a day of observance, and no form
of work should be done. Many satirists of the time looked on Sunday observance
as a form of repression. Charles Dickens (1812-1870) in ‘Little Dorrit’ (Chap.3) says
"Everything
was bolted and barred that could by possibility furnish relief to an overworked
people. No pictures, no natural or artificial wonders of the ancient world –
all taboo…Nothing to see but streets, streets, streets. Nothing to breathe but
streets, streets, streets…Nothing for the spent toiler to do but to compare the
monotony of his last six days with the monotony of his seventh"
However Bradley points out that "The establishment
throughout England thought that the drabness and dullness of the Victorian
Sunday, was the crowning achievement of the movement for the reformation of
manners which the Evangelicals led during the first half of the 19th century".
Alongside Sabbatarianism, the ethos of Evangelicalism was
promoted within the family. It idealised and ‘sanctified’ family life. Bradley
(1970) quotes William Roberts (Portrait
of a Christian Gentleman. 1829) who "Urged the Christian gentleman to make his home and family his dearest
concern, and to remember that ‘a vagrant charity but ill compensates for a
deserted hearth, a distracted economy and a loose domestic government".
The Victorians had a strong conviction that only within the bosom of the family could Godly virtues be cultivated.
The centre of life was the institution of an organised prayer service. Samuel
Butlers painting ‘Family Prayers’
is a good illustration of the family and servants at prayer. The formal
education of the children was often coloured because of the parents desire that
education should be taught alongside Evangelicalism. Bishop Wilberforce’s
children were educated at home to preserve "Their eternal state".
Hannah More in her book ‘Works’ (1820) says of children, "I enjoin parents not to indulge their
offspring, lest they come to connect happiness with gluttony, and pleasure with
loitering… but rather to train them early on in the principles of discipline
and self restraint".
One the most unique events in Evangelicalism was the emergence
of the ‘respectable’ lady, who could function unaided by her husband. (Cynics
would see this era as a precursor of female emancipation). Most historians
however point out, that Evangelical families felt a powerful need to serve the
Lord in a practical way, and thus strengthen their chances of salvation.
Bradley (1976) says of female Evangelicalism. "The most important agents in the spread of Evangelical religion among
the upper classes seem, however, to have been the female members of their
families. At the time of Queen Victoria’s reign at least twenty noble houses
had Evangelical ladies at their head, all engaged in benefactions."
As early as 1798 the Evangelist Sarah Trimmer published a small work entitled
‘The Economy of Charity’ which was addressed to "ladies of rank and fortune to encourage them to take up Sunday-School
work and voluntary benefactions’. The writer Hannah Moore (1745-1833) in
her book ‘Essays on Various
Subjects…for Young Ladies (1777), said "How it is to be regretted, that the British ladies should ever sit down
contented to polish, when they are able to reform; to entertain, when they
might instruct; and to dazzle for an hour, when they are candidates for
eternity!" There where many famous philanthropists such as
Elizabeth Fry, Catharine Marsh etc who ran charitable institutions with great
success. We must not forget however that many women of humbler origin became
‘District Visitors’, and that of course the wives of non-conformist ministers ran
all the chapel events and charities. Mrs Pardiggle in Charles Dickens’s ‘Bleak
House’ proudly listed her activities to all new acquaintances: "I am a school lady, I am a visiting lady, I
am a reading lady, I am a distributing lady, I am on the local linen box
committee, and my canvassing alone is very extensive"
To conclude with all the above, we hold the concept that the
early 19th century was the age of Godliness through practical
Evangelicalism. This must be tempered with the fact that the Evangelicals where
seeking salvation for their souls journey into the next life. Therefore, their
Godly acts where done as much for themselves as for the less fortunate. The
‘Religious Census’ of 1851 (The calculations are questionable) shows that out
of approx. 18 million population, only about 7.2 million (40%) attended church
on ‘census’ day. This must remove the notion of a ‘Godly Nation’.
Perhaps the most significant event of this era was the
publication of Charles Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’ in 1859 (Plus Lyell’s
Principal of Geology in 1830) Symondson (1970) said "The Origin of Species came into the
theological world like a plough into an ant-hill" Although the work
was hotly refuted by the theologically trained men of science, it no doubt
played an important part in the decline of Evangelicalism. Overall,
Evangelicalism must be seen as a repressive religion that denied the natural
instincts of mankind, and as such was doomed to failure. If it had been based
on a more liberal interpretation of the life of Jesus (as we do nowadays) then
it may well have survived to the present day.
REFERENCES.
Bebbington, D.(1997) Victorian
Non-Conformity. (Headstart Press, Bangor.)
Bradley,I.(1976) The
Call to Seriousness. (Jonathan Cape, London.)
Fletcher,S.(1998) Victorian
Girls. (Hambledon Press,London)
Gilbert,A.(1976) Religion
and Society.(Longmans Press, London.)
Herbert,G. (1988) Wales
in the 19th Century. (Univ. Wales Press, Cardif.)
Huxley,J.(1966) Ideas
and Beliefs of the Victorians. (E.P.Dutton, New York)
Jay,E. (1976) Religion
of the Heart. (Clarendon Press, Oxford)
Jay,E. (1986) Faith
& Doubt in Victorian Britain. (Macmillan. London)
Jones,G (1984) Wales
1485-1979. (Cambridge Press, London.)
Symondson,A. (1970) Victorian
Crisis of Faith. (S.P.C.K. Church, London)
Walker,W,(1985) History
of Christian Church. (Scribner Press, New York)
Wolffe,J.(1995) Evangelical
Faith and Public Zeal.(S.P.C.K. Church, London)
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Bradley,I. The Call to
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Gilbert,A. Religion and
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Hammond,P. The
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Herbert,G. Wales in the
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Huxley,J. Ideas and
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Jay,E. Religion of the
Heart.(Clarendon Press.Oxford 1979)
Jay,E. Faith and Doubt
in Victorian Britain.(Macmillan, London 1986)
Jones,G. Wales
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(Oxford Uni. Press. Oxford. 1994)
Sumondson,A. Victorian
Crisis of Faith. (S.P.C.K. Church Press. London. 1970)
Walker,W, History of
Christian Church. (Scribner Press, New York.1985)
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Faith and Public Zeal.(S.P.C.K. Church, London.1995)
INTERNET SOURCES.
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